Investment Behaviour of Women Essay

AbstractThrough an epitome of juvenile domesticizes in iii hearstitution res publicas in Chilepensions, child bank line concern service, and maternity/ agnatic chokethe typography seeks to explore how equity-oriented reforms deal with the threefold legacy of pregnancy, male-breadwinner bias, and food business deal reform. Recent studies of new fond policies in Latin America bemuse underlined the persistent strength of maternalist assumptions. womens liberationist research on new silver transfer programs, in commenceicular, has tended to see to a greater extent persistence than change in the sexed underpinnings of kindly insurance policy. This paper suggests that once we broaden our eld of vision to admit archeozoic(a) hearty programs and reforms, the ship canal in which coeval neighborly policy (re)denes womens productive and reproductive occasions, hearty rights, and obligations ar more heterogeneous and contradictory. Indeed, while any(prenominal) policies take un stipendiary cargon by women for tending(p), another(prenominal)s brain to an increasing aw arness of in extend toities  Staab that shape womens and mens derivative instrument access to market income and human beings genial benets.Over the last decade, thither has been a veritable explosion of scholarship on Latin American accessible policy. In part this reects the fact thatafter decades of look crosswiseLatin American secerns amaze rediscovered affable policy and scaled up their efforts to address the kind fallout of liberalization. Indeed, while Washington Consensus reforms were of importly compulsive by the desire to cut costs and reduce the scope of the state, the posthumous 1990s and 2000s pose seen more coordinated state interventions to reduce poverty, inequality, and social exclusion. time not giveing to post-war social safeguard schemes, countries in the grapheme are experimenting with policies that break with the liberal notion o f minimal safety nets (Barrientos et al. 2008 Molyneux 2008 Cortes 2009). What does this harvest-tide of the state mean for womens social rights and eudaemonia? It has been argued that in tune to the sexual urge blindness of neoliberal reforms, new social policies be in possession of been gender conscious (Bedford 2007). However, relatively teentsy brassatic research has been carried out on the gender dynamics of this new social agenda (Macdonald and Ruckert 2009).The existing writings seems to suggest that there is far more perseverance than change in the gendered underpinnings of new social safeguard programs. Feminist research on conditional cash transfers (CCTs)a distinguish innovation associated with Post-Washington Consensus social policy in the portionhas tended to stress the persistence of maternalism (e.g., Molyneux 2007 Bradshaw 2008 Tabbush 2009), a set of ideas and practices with a long and ambiguous history in the region. Yet there is more to Post-Washington Consensus social policy than CCTs. Several Latin American countries are experimenting with other care-related policies alongside cash transfer schemes including the introduction of full-day schooling, the expansion of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services, maternity/ maternal(p) leave reforms, and in recent pension reforms, the introduction of child-rearing credits. While some of these programs take the unsalaried care by women for granted, others point to an increasing awareness of gender inequalities that shape womens and mens differential access to labor market income and public social benets.That these initiatives incur received little scholarly attention leaves the economic crisis that Latin American social policy is stuck on a maternalist track, when content and regional cuts are likely to be more varied and multiplex. Against this broader backdrop, the main aim of the paper is to provide a better understanding of the complex and contradictory  ways in which womens productive and reproductive roles, social rights, and obligations are constructed and (re)dened in the context of recent equity-oriented reforms. I argue for a two-tiered approach. First, I propose to bunk beyond integrity policy analysis towards a more systemic view that takes into account and compares studys across sectors. Second, I aim to assess these reforms according to the ways in which they feature dealt with three secern legacies marketization, maternalism, and male-breadwinner bias. I apply this approach to the recent reforms in Chilean social policy, a pointly intriguing case.First, Chile is often cited as the Latin American coarse where neoliberal principles have been most comprehensively applied. Its 1980s social sector reforms peculiarly in pensions and healthhave long been promoted by international nancial institutions as a model for other countries to emulate (Taylor 2003 Orenstein 2005). Recent innovations in Chiles social policy regime t hus merit close attention. Second, Chile combines market liberalism with fast social conservatism, particularly with regards to gender roles.We would expect these two legacies to create raise tensions and contradictions for example over whether mothers should be at home (maternalism) or in the market (liberalism)that social and employment policies have to navigate. I have chosen to focus on the recent reforms in pension, ECEC, and parental leave policies, issues which have been high up the public agenda in Chile and elsewhere. This is reective of both broader global discourses spearheaded by international organizations such as the homo Bank and the OECD, as well as a regional trend to revising social protection frameworks with anemphasis on increasing the coverage of hitherto excluded groups.1 The selection thus consciously combines two more tralatitious policy areas associated with social protection/consumption (pensions and maternity leave), with an emerging area geared towa rds social investment (ECEC). While the former were directly undermined by structural adjustment and deliberately restructured interest the advice of international nancial institutions (Orenstein 2005 Brooks 2009), the last mentioned have acquired prominence over the past decades as a doer of reducing poverty by facilitating womens labor force elaborateness and as a cost-efcient tool to promote human capital development by investing in early childhood development. These ideas form part of an emerging global paradigm (Jenson and Saint-Martin 2003 Jenson 2010 Mahon 2010) and seem to have ltered down to the national level with several Latin American countries experimenting with childcare-related reforms.2 The combination of protection and advance implicit in this selection is also highly relevant from a gender perspective.While childcare services and parental leaves can ease womens engagement in paid employment, pension systems can be designed in ways that translate labor market inequalities into unequalised entitlements in old age. They thus represent two sides of the same problem, that is to say the extent to which the gender division of labor affects womens and mens differential access to income and social security. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows.The next section briey illustrates the rationale for choosing marketization, maternalism, and male-breadwinner bias as key dimensions for assessing continuity and change. It takes a historical and regional perspective to show how they became embed in Latin American systems of social provision. The second half of the paper then provides a detailed analysis of recent reforms in Chilean pension, childcare, and maternity leave policies. The nal section draws out some comparative conclusions active the extent to which the recent reforms have dealt with the key legacies of marketization, maternalism, and male-breadwinner bias.Maternalism, Male-Breadwinner Bias, and Market Reform Trajec tories of welfare state formation and change in Latin America are in umpteen ways different from those of advanced economies in atomic number 63 or North America that have formed the basis for possibility building. The most important difference is probably the dynamism and radicalism with which development strategies have been recast over the last century (Sheahan 2002, 4). Thus, many countries moved from state-led import-substituting industrialisation (ISI) in the post-war period to the rather radical application of neoliberal prescriptions following the recessions and debt crises of the late 1970s and early 1980s. These transitions left distinct legacies in systems of social provision.From the often incomplete formation of welfare institutions in the post-war era, governments in the region turned to retrenchment, de commandment, and privatization. Redistributive and universalist aspirationshowever exclusionary or stratifying these had been in practice (Filgueira and Filgueira 200 2)were buried with the shift to market-led development and the region moved closer towards liberal-informal welfare regimes (Barrientos 2004). As the state was scaled back, reforms empowered business interests which became directly involved in education, health, and pension systems.3 Gender roles and norms as well as pervasive gender inequalities across states, markets, and households mediate womens and mens exposure to social risks as well as their specic need for social protection and services. Women face particular challenges due to motherhood and other caring responsibilities that societies largely assign to them (Lewis 1992 OConnor 1993 Orloff 1993). Yet, these risks and responsibilities have rarely been taken into account in the design of social policies.Thus, Bismarck-style social insurance systems, such as those founded across Latin American countries in the post-war period, had an inherent male-breadwinner bias.4 Women, in turn, tended to access social benets as wives of a male breadwinner or as mothers whose maternal functions had to be safeguarded and protected (Gimenez 2005). Motherhood became the very basis on which women staked their claims to citizenship rights and states deployed their efforts to mobilize young-bearing(prenominal) constituencies. At the heart of this civic maternalism was the belief that women and in particular their biological and social function as mothers had to be recognized, valued, and protected (Molyneux 2000).5 This was, in Nancy Folbres words, the patriarchal trunk onto which market reform was grafted, but which continues to inuence the shape of the tree (Interviewed by Razavi 2011). A large body of publications has documented how structural adjustment adjoind the overall burden on women.Thus, where privatization and trade liberalization triggered a rise in male unemployment, women were pu mould into (largely informal) paid employment to make up for lost wages. Meanwhile, retrenchment and commercialization of social services shifted more responsibilities for social provision to the domestic sphere, where the prevailing gender division of labor meant that women spent more time on unpaid reproductive work (Benera and Feldman 1992 Sparr 1994 and Elson 1995). In social protection systems, the move from risk sharing to individualization exacerbated already existing gender inequalities. By tightening the relationship between contributory patterns and pension benets, market reforms efficaciously deepened male-breadwinner bias (Dion 2008). In health, private insurance companies were given plenty of roundabout for dening premiums based on gender-specic risks, such as pregnancy (Gideon 2006). As a result, the costs of biological and social reproduction were further individualized and passed on to women.Paradoxically, maternalism remained a strong theme in the neoliberal era, at least at the level of public discourse (Molyneux 2000). In short, market reforms layered new gender inequalities onto the already existing legacies of maternalism and male-breadwinner bias. As a result, traditionalist elements exist alongside (neo)liberal elements in the contemporary welfare architecture of many Latin American countries. How are these legacies challenged or compounded by the current wave of policy innovations and reform? If the state is indeed assuming greater responsibility for social provision, does this trend provide a more favorable context for redressing gender inequalities? More particularly, does it reect a greater recognition and redistribution of the responsibilities for and costs of care and social reproduction?The existing literature suggests that there is far more continuity than change in gendered assumptions even as new social programs are being rolled out Recent studies have argued, for example, that new social programs have paid scant, if any, attention to the underlying structures of gender inequality in labor markets and households (Razavi 2007) that economi c and social policies continue to place the burden of social reproduction on families (read women) that the particular design of social programs tends to reinforce handed-down gender roles without providing long-term strategies for womens economic security through and through meditate training or childcare provision (Molyneux 2007 Tabbush 2009) and that new social policies increase social control and surveillance of mothers child-rearing behavior and performance (Luccisano and Wall 2009). Feminist research on CCTs, in particular, has tended to stress the persistence of maternalist orientations (e.g., Molyneux 2007 Bradshaw 2008 Tabbush 2009).This literature has been important for understanding the gendered nature of new social policies in the region and overmuch remains to be learned about the actual diversity of these programs (Martnez Franzoni and Voorend 2009) and their furbish up on women from different ethnic groups (Hernandez 2011 Rivera 2011). Analytically, however, th e focus on a single scheme is insufcient to assess the processes through which womens productive and reproductive roles, social rights, and obligations are currently being (re)dened. Several Latin American countries are experimenting with other social policies alongside the much-cited CCTs, including the introduction of full-day schooling, the expansion of ECEC services, maternity/parental leave reforms, and the introduction of child-rearing credits in recent pension reforms.In each of these areas, equity-oriented reformers struggle with the legacies of maternalism and male-breadwinner bias, on the one hand, and the (ideological and de-facto) importance of markets, on the other hand. I argue that these struggles shape reform processes and outcomes in ways that are more complex and contradictory than the existing literature on CCTs suggests. The following analysis of Chilean social policy sets out to break away some of these complexities by looking at the recent reforms in pensions, childcare, and leave regulations. Implicit in this approach is an understanding of the state as a concept that helps to contextualize present governmental conicts and policy processes (Hay and Lister 2006). In other words, previously enacted policies, institutional choices, and strategic interactions constitute a strategically selective terrain (Jessop 1990, 203) that structures present political conict, rendering it more tributary to some demands than others.While not determining their behavior, the ensemble of institutions and policy frameworks that constitute the state offer opportunities to and impose constraints on, the political agency of those wishing to resultant policy change. The three legacies outlined above form part of the institutional landscape of the state. As such, they are shown to play a signicant role in current attempts of reform and policy innovation. While these legacies constitute the main focus of this paper, they are by no means the only performer that shape change and continuity in Chilean social policy. In fact, sector-specic actors, partisan politics, and particular political contingencies come into play to differing degrees.Furthermore, the continuity and deepening of an economic model based on trade openness, macroeconomic stability, monetary, and scal classify and exible employment, forms the backdrop against which more expansive social policies have emerged as a response to persistent inequality. However, the full meaning of recent reforms cannot be understood without taking into account the gender-specic legacies in each sector. (En)gendering modification and Continuity Recent reforms in Chile Chile is a particularly intriguing case for analyzing continuity and change in social policy. On the one hand, it is often portrayed as the plain where neoliberal principles have most profoundly transformed economic, social, and political institutions (Kurtz 1999 Filgueira and Filgueira 2002).While radical market reforms were carried out under the aegis of a armed forces dictatorship (19731989), many of the models features were maintained with the return to res publica. Consequently, the countrys policy framework is often represented as particularly resistant to equity-oriented change. On the other hand, Chile combines market liberalism with social conservatismtwo features that stodgy welfare regime analysis tends to locate in different clusters (the conservative and the liberal variant, respectively). Female labor force participation is among the lowest in the region (ECLAC 2008), the countrys welfare regime has been described as inherently gender biased (Pribble 2006, 86), and conservative social norms regarding womens role in the family loom large (Contreras and Plaza 2010).6 Despite this rather reproving context, recent reforms suggest that these frameworks are not carved in stone. Since the early 2000s efforts to expand social protection, to improve access to and quality of social services and to strengthen social rights have featured prominently on the countrys social agenda, leading some to argue that Chile whitethorn be approaching a point of inection (Illanes and Riesco 2007, 406).The following sections shed light on the complex and contradictory ways in which the triple legacy of maternalism, male-breadwinner bias, and market reform is addressed by recent reforms in pensions (adopted in 2008), childcare services (signicantly expanded since 2006), and maternity leave (reformed in 2011). Before delving more deeply into the developments in each sector, it is necessary to briey describe the broader economic and political context since the countrys return to democracy in 1990. Context of Recent Reforms and Policy Innovations The return to democracy did not entail a drastic transformation of the institutional foundations of economic and social policy inherited from the military regime (Moulian 2002 Taylor 2003 Borzutzky 2010).In fact, in macroeconomic terms th e center-left party compaction Concertacion that governed the country from 1990 to 2010 validated and deepened the neoliberal model based on trade openness, macroeconomic stability, monetary and scal discipline and exible employment. To offset some of its worst effects, social spending increased steadily which, together with economic growth and employment creation, dramatically reduced supreme poverty from 38.6 percent in 1990 to 13.7 percent in 2006 (ECLAC 2008), although it did relatively little to improve income distribution or lessen social inequalities and fragmentation in education, health, and social protection (Solimano 2009).Explanations for this continuity are manifold, including the formidable constraints placed on the autonomy of the rst Concertacion governments by authoritarian enclaves in the political system that granted right-wing political opposition important veto powers the resistance of business interests whose power increased as a result of market refor ms the helplessness of other civil fraternity actors, particularly labor a political culture eager to avoid the kind of political confrontation that preceded the military coup and the adoption of market-oriented ideas by key decision makers within the centerleft coalition itself (e.g. Kurtz 2003 Castiglioni 2005 Borzutzky and Weeks 2010 Ewig and Kay 2011). The result of this complex and contradictory process has been described as a Chilean Third Way characterized by an unwavering commitment to trade liberalization and privatization despite considerable public opposition and a sensitivity to a policy process that discourages participation by civil society and rank-and-le party members, while affording business access to the highest reaches of government (Sandbrook et al. 2007, 16465).This set-up makes some policy areas more amenable to equity-enhancing reforms and innovations than others. As the economic model rests upon a exible and restrictive labor regime (Frank 2004), socia l policy is largely conned to enhancing workers ability to compete on the market and to mitigating some of the worst risks that unregulated and precarious employment entails. This goes a long way to explain why the two socialist-led governments of Ricardo Lagos (20002006) and Michelle Bachelet (20062010) spearheaded health reform, pension reform and childcare service expansion in order to enhance equity, while shying away from reforms related to the countrys labor market where many of the fundamental social inequalities originate. While the Bachelet administrations employment policy and labor relations have been described as disappointing, (Lopez 2009 Sehnbruch 2009), it did turn social protection into a key priority. The conceptual pillars of her strategy include a life-course approach to social protection and the attempt to introduce a rights-based perspective (Hardy 2011).The latter materialized in a gradual lifting of budgetary restrictions on social assistance7 and the pro gressive relaxation of eligibility requirements for accessing a range of benets. The life-course approach, in turn, is captured in repeatedly stated commitments to create equal opportunities and protect citizens from the cradle to old age. Tellingly, its translation into policy cerebrate on the two extremes of the life course, namely the reform of the pension system and Chile Crece Contigo, an integrated early childhood protection system that included the massive expansion of childcare services. The working-age population remained caught in the middle with persistently low employment quality, including a high level of job unbalance and the limited reach of employment-based rights and benets, a scenario that disproportionately affects women workers (Sehnbruch 2009).8 Thus, the attempt to self-coloured greater equity and social inclusion with an open economy inuenced the scope and locus of policy change during the Bachelet administration. While acquiring greater visibility, social p rotection remained subordinate to macroeconomic goals, including those related to employment, understood as not interfering with job creation through greater regulation and rights for workers. In this context, it is particularly surprising that a highly controversial employment-related reform was introduced under the new right-wing government of Sebastian Pinera (2010) which, in 2011, expanded (women) workers rights through a reform of maternity leave regulations.